NBSIR 87-3576THE
ABC's OF STANDARDS-RELATED ACTIVITIES
IN THE UNITED STATESMaureen
A. Breitenberg
Office of Standards Code and Information
Office of Product
Standards Policy
National Institute of Standards and Technology
Gaithersburg,
MD 20899 May 1987
Foreword
Acknowledgments
Abstract
Introduction
Background
Historical Notes on
Standardization
Types of Standards
Private Standards Organizations in the U.S.
Standards Development Procedures
Benefits
and Problems of Standardization
Certification
Laboratory Accreditation
Summary
Appendix
Footnotes
The Office of Standards Code
and Information in the NIST Office of Standards Services from time to time develops
and publishes standards-related documents as a service to producers and users
of standards and certification systems, both in the government and in the private
sector. This report has been designed as an introduction to standardization, certification,
and laboratory accreditation for those not fully familiar with these fields and
their interrelationships. We hope that this material will be informative and will
also serve to stimulate wider and more profitable applications of standardization.
In addition, the interested reader may wish to take further advantage of other
available publications and services provided by this office, some of which are
described in the appendix. Return to Contents
I would like
to thank Tom Kelsey, International Trade Administration; dipl. Ing. Alfonse F.
Donko, Deputy Managing Director, Osterreichisches Normungsinstitut (ON), and many
others for their careful review of and comments on this document. I would
especially like to thank Walter Leight, NIST, who oversaw the preparation of many
of the initial drafts of this document. Maureen A. Breitenberg
Office
of Standards Code and Information Return to Contents
This report provides an introduction
to voluntary standardization, product certification and laboratory accreditation
for a reader who is not fully familiar with these topics. It highlights some of
the more important aspects of these fields; furnishes the reader with both historical
and current information on these topics; describes the importance and impact of
the development and use of standards; and serves as background for using available
documents and services. Key Words: Certification; inspection; laboratory
accreditation; standardization; standards; testing Return
to Contents
"The
inch is a standard of measurement.Money is a standard
of exchange.Words are standards of communication.Traffic
lights are safety standards.Octane numbers of gasoline
are quality standards.'No more than 1% shrinkage' is a
performance standard." 1/As the above indicates, standardization
has a major impact on our lives, yet most people know little about the process
or about the standards themselves. They know that camera film marked ISO 100 is
likely to give good results in a camera with the film speed set at 100, but few
understand that the ISO 100 marking on the package means that the film conforms
to a standard established by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO), an international organization that writes standards. Few people question
that three-holed notebook paper will align with the three rings in most notebooks,
yet such confidence would not be possible without standards. While driving we
are on the lookout for hexagonal, not round or square-shaped stop signs, just
as we know that inverted triangles indicate where traffic should yield. These
are just a few of the thousands of standards that impact on our lives. Because
standards have such an impact, it is important to have some familiarity with what
they are and how they are developed and used. This paper is designed to be an
introduction to some of the more significant aspects of standards development,
product certification, and laboratory accreditation. It will also discuss some
of the benefits and problems associated with these processes. The interested reader
is encouraged to increase his knowledge of the field by taking advantage of other
available publications and services described in the appendix. Return
to Contents
A
standard was defined by the National Standards Policy Advisory Committee as: "A
prescribed set of rules, conditions, or requirements concerning definitions of
terms; classification of components; specification of materials, performance,
or operations; delineation of procedures; or measurement of quantity and quality
in describing materials, products, systems, services, or practices."
2/ Though often unrecognized, standards can help to assure health and safety
and to increase the quality of life. Standards are vital tools of industry and
commerce. They often provide the basis for buyer-seller transactions, hence they
have tremendous impact on companies and nations, and even on the economic fabric
of the world market. In the United States alone, approximately 30,000 current
voluntary standards have been developed by more than 400 organizations. These
do not include a much greater number of procurement specifications (developed
and used by Federal, State, and local procurement authorities), as well as mandatory
codes, rules and regulations containing standards developed and adopted at Federal,
State, and local levels. In addition, numerous foreign national, regional and
international organizations produce standards of interest and importance to U.S.
manufacturers and exporters. There are numerous international organizations
that produce standards. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
probably produces the largest number of International Standards, having issued
approximately 6,000 standards. ISO's work is carried out through some 2,300 technical
bodies in which more than 20,000 experts from all over the world participate annually
in the development of ISO standards. The international General Agreement
on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) has as one of its major components the Agreement on
Technical Barriers to Trade (usually referred to as the Standards Code). The framers
of the Standards Code recognized that standards and standards-related activities
can seriously hinder the free flow of goods in international commerce. The Code
established, for the first time, some requirements for the procedures by which
standards are developed, adopted, and used and for the systems which determine
conformity with such standards. The Trade Agreements Act of 1979 implemented
the Standards Code in the United States. Federal agencies are required under the
Act to: "-Not engage in standards activities that are prepared, adopted
or applied to create, or have the effect of creating, unnecessary obstacles to
the foreign trade of the United States; - Ensure that imported products
are treated no less favorably than domestic products;
- Use international
standards, if appropriate, as a base for developing new standards;
- Develop
standards based on performance rather than design criteria, if appropriate; and
- Allow foreign suppliers access to their certification systems on the
same basis as access is permitted to domestic suppliers." 3/
Return
to Contents
The history of standardization is both fascinating
and demonstrative of the scope and variety of such activities. A predecessor of
the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) noted that one of the first known
attempts at standardization in the Western world occurred in 1120. King Henry
I of England ordered that the ell, the ancient yard, should be the exact length
of his forearm, and that it should be used as the standard unit of length in his
kingdom. 4/ That history also notes that, in 1689, the Boston city fathers
recognized the need for standardization when they passed a law making it a civic
crime to manufacture bricks in any size other than 9x4x4. The city had just been
destroyed by fire, and the city fathers decided that standards would assure rebuilding
in the most economic and fastest way possible. 5/ Eli Whitney is sometimes
referred to as "the Father of Standardization" in the area of interchangeability,
having originated and implemented the concept of mass production in the United
States in 1780. He was awarded a contract to produce 10,000 muskets by then Vice-President
Thomas Jefferson. Though standardized parts had been successfully used in other
parts of the world, Whitney brought the concept to this country when he divided
the manufacturing process into individual steps and put different groups to work
on each step of the process. All parts of the same type were copied from a model
musket and were made to be interchangeable. Subsequently, when he appeared before
Congress with a collection of assorted parts and proceeded to assemble ten working
muskets by selecting the required parts at random, Congress was convinced of the
benefits of mass production made possible by standardization. 6/ Standards
are known to have existed as early as 7000 B.C. when cylindrical stones were used
as units of weight in Egypt. However, the great blaze in downtown Baltimore in
February 1904 and other, similar catastrophes provided tragic and undeniable evidence
of the importance of standards. While the fire in Baltimore burned, fire engines
from as far away as New York rushed to the scene only to discover that their hoses
would not fit Baltimore hydrants. Those "alien" fire engines were useless!
The inferno burned for more than thirty hours, destroying 1526 buildings covering
more than seventy city blocks. All electric light, telephone, telegraph, and power
facilities were also razed. 7/ In contrast, 23 years later, help from 20 neighboring
towns saved Fall River, Massachusetts from destruction since hydrants and hose
couplings had been standardized in these communities. 8/ As late as 1927,
a color-blind motorist had as good (or as bad) a chance as anyone else when trying
to interpret traffic signals. Purple, orange, green, blue, yellow, and red lights
greeted him as he drove from state to state. In some states, green meant "Go,"
in others "Stop." Red, not yellow, lights meant caution in New York
City. In 1927 a national code for colors was established through the work of the
American Association of State Highway Officials, the National Bureau of Standards
(now NIST) and the National Safety Council. 9/ Imagine the chaos that would occur
during rush hour in any major U.S. city today if newcomers and tourists did not
know what traffic signals meant! Probably the most significant standard
ever developed in the United States, however, was the railroads' standard track
gage. This standard, now used in Great Britain, the U.S., Canada and much of continental
Europe, enables railroad rolling stock to cross the country. 10/ It was
the Second World War, however, that brought the urgency of extending domestic
standardization to the international level. Allied supplies and facilities were
severely strained because of the incompatibility of tools, replacement parts,
and equipment. The War highlighted the need for standards aimed at reducing inventories
and increasing compatibility. Return to Contents
Standards may
be classified in numerous ways, some of which are described here. ISO Draft Guide
2 differentiates eight types based on purpose. 11/ A basic standard has
a broad ranging effect in a particular field, such as a standard for metal which
affects a range of products from cars down to screws. Terminology standards
define words permitting representatives of an industry or parties to a transaction
to use a common, clearly understood language. Testing standards define
the test methods to be used to assess the performance or other characteristics
of a product. Product standards establish qualities or requirements for
a product (or related group of products) to assure that it will serve its purpose
effectively. Process standards specify requirements to be met by a process,
such as an assembly line's operation, in order to function effectively. Service
standards, such as for servicing or repairing a car, establish requirements
to be met in order to achieve the designated purpose effectively. Interface
standards, such as the point of connection between a telephone and a computer
terminal, are concerned with the compatibility of products. The last type provides
a listing of data requirements for a product or service for which values
need to be obtained. Standards may also be classified by the intended user
group. These classifications range from company standards, meant for use
by a single industrial organization, to international standards. International
standards are developed and promulgated by international governmental and non-governmental
organizations, such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO's) Military
Agency for Standardization (governmental) and the ISO (non-governmental). International
standards may be voluntary or mandatory in nature. A harmonized standard,
on the other hand, can be either an attempt by a country to make its standard
compatible with an international, regional or other standard or it can be an agreement
by two or more nations on the content and application of a standard, the latter
of which tends to be mandatory. Harmonized standards may also be identical in
content to other standards. There are still other classifications such as industry
standards, developed and promulgated by an industry for materials and products
related to that industry; and military or government standards,
such as those designed to be used by the Department of Defense or by the Federal
Government. These should not be confused with Federal and Military Specifications,
used by the Federal Supply Services in the General Services Administration and
by the Department of Defense respectively. Specifications are a set of conditions
and requirements that provide a detailed description of a procedure, process,
material, product, or service for use primarily in procurement and manufacturing.
12/ Another distinction among standards is the manner in which they specify
requirements. Those standards that describe how a product is supposed to function
are called performance standards. In contrast, design standards
define characteristics or how the product is to be built. For example, a performance
standard for water pipe might set requirements for the pressure per square inch
that a pipe must withstand, along with a test method to determine if a specimen
meets the requirement. On the other hand, the specification that a pipe be made
of a given gage of copper would characterize a design standard. The distinction,
however, between these two types of standards is not always clear cut. It is possible
to include two different requirements within the same standard, one of which is
stated in terms of performance and the other in terms of design. For example,
in a standard for copper pipe, requirements for the pipe can be specified in terms
of its performance (being able to withstand a given amount of pressure), but the
same standard may require that the pipe's flanges or couplings meet specific design
requirements. Design standards may be appropriate, as in testing methods
where the need for comparability may outweigh other considerations. In general,
however, performance standards, though usually more difficult to write and enforce,
tend to be less restrictive than design standards, and more likely to encourage
innovation. For that reason, signatories to the Standards Code are encouraged
to write technical regulations and standards in terms of performance, rather than
design, characteristics. Still another classification scheme distinguishes
between voluntary standards, which by themselves impose no obligations
regarding use, and mandatory standards. A mandatory standard is generally
published as part of a code, rule or regulation by a regulatory government body
and imposes an obligation on specified parties to conform to it. However, the
distinction between these two categories may be lost when voluntary consensus
standards are referenced in government regulations, effectively making them "mandatory"
standards. Voluntary consensus standards may also become "quasi-mandatory"
due to conditions in the marketplace. For example, the health care industry is
sensitive to the need to have available the safest products to ensure patient
safety and to protect manufacturers, vendors and health care providers against
lawsuits. Informed buyers of health care products will frequently insist that
products meet all appropriate voluntary consensus standards. If they wish to compete
effectively, manufacturers of such products are obliged to conform to such standards. It
is clear, then, that standards cover a broad range of types and serve a wide variety
of purposes. Return to Contents
The
need for safe and economical structures, such as roads and bridges, led to the
founding of the International Association for Testing and Materials in 1896. Its
mission was to develop standardized test methods. Two years later, the American
Section of this organization was formed and became the forerunner of the American
Society for Testing and Materials, now known as ASTM. Since becoming an independent
organization in 1902, ASTM has continued to grow and now produces the largest
number of non-governmental, voluntary standards in the United States. In
1918, ASTM was one of five private, technical society originators of the American
Engineering Standards Committee, later to be known as the American Standards Association
(ASA), and subsequently as the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). ANSI
today serves as the coordinator of voluntary standards activities in the United
States and as the agency that approves standards as American National Standards.
ANSI is also the coordinator and manager of U.S. participation in the work of
two non-governmental, international standards organizations, ISO and the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). Another of the major private standards
organizations, the American Society of Mechanical Engineering (ASME), was founded
in 1880 and first issued the ASME Boiler Code in 1914. Today that Code is mandatory
not only in the United States, but in many other countries throughout the world.
In 1952, a forerunner of ANSI stated: "Probably no other single standard
in America has done more for national safety than the ASME Boiler Code."
13/ The ASME Boiler Code may be the most widely used voluntary standard in the
world. The founding of the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) in 1910
led to the pioneering efforts of the American automotive industry to achieve substantial
inter-company technical standardization. Most drivers now take these efforts for
granted when choosing motor oils by SAE designations (such as 10W-40) without
being aware of the full significance and background of the detailed standards
development process. Most consumers also take for granted the familiar UL
mark on a range of products from electrical appliances to fire extinguishers.
The Underwriters Laboratories (UL), founded in 1894, is not only a major standards
writer, but also operates non-profit testing laboratories whose mission is to
investigate products and materials with respect to hazards that might affect life
or property and to list those items which appear to pose no significant hazards. The
work of other major standards organizations, although equally vital, tends to
be less well known outside the standards community. For example, the National
Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has for more than three quarters of a century
produced the National Electrical Code, used in building construction, and many
other standards affecting our safety from fires and other hazards. We accept without
conscious thought the safety of aircraft unaware of the standards produced by
the Aerospace Industries Association of America (AIA) for guidance and control
systems and many other items. The Association of American Railroads' (AAR) standards
similarly affect our railroads. Even the quality and size of paper is standardized
through the work of the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI). In
all, more than 400 organizations develop voluntary standards of many different
types for a broad range of services, products, and tests. Some organizations,
such as ANSI and ASTM, are primarily concerned with standards. Others are trade
associations interested in all matters affecting their members. The Electronic
Industries Association, for example, has been a standards developer in the areas
of electrical and electronic products and components since 1926. Many professional
and technical organizations are also standards developers. The Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), which traces back to 1884, maintains more than
500 standards with 800 more under development. IEEE is responsible for the National
Electrical Safety Code, widely used by governments and regulatory agencies for
electric supply and communications installations. Still other standards developers
are primarily research and testing bodies, such as the National Sanitation Foundation
(NSF), which develops standards for products from a health and sanitation perspective.
The Factory Mutual Research Corporation (FM), another standards developer, is
a "product listing" type of organization, as is UL. In addition,
building code organizations, such as the Building Officials and Code Administrators
International (BOCA), the International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO),
and the Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI), are involved in
standards development. These organizations are composed of building, construction,
zoning, and inspection officials; they have developed model building codes adopted
by thousands of State and local governments. The broad range of organizations
participating in standards development reflects the impact standards have on a
vast spectrum of interests and disciplines. Return to Contents
Two
of the most widely used procedures for assuring consensus in the development of
standards are the committee and the canvass methods. Committee Method.
Committee standards are subject to wide review and consideration by all interested
parties. The requirements of this process vary among organizations. In some organizations,
consensus may be defined as an agreement of at least 51% of the participants.
Other organizations may also include requirements for due process, appeals procedures,
the mandatory consideration of negative votes or comments, and for "committee
balance." Balance is achieved when all parties having an interest in the
outcome of a standard have an opportunity to participate and where no single interest
can dominate the outcome. Standards organizations differ widely in the emphasis
placed on each of these requirements. Organizations which emphasize all four factors,
in addition to the achievement of substantial agreement among participants, produce
standards that are more likely to be adopted and used. Canvass method.
The "canvass" method is frequently used by an organization that has
prepared a standard under its own internal procedures. To gain greater stature
and acceptance of the drafted standard, the developer may then submit it to balloting
by a set of organizations representing a variety of interests, such as manufacturers,
consumers, government, and others. Any objections or comments from organizations
on the "canvass list" must be addressed and satisfactorily resolved.
Changes in a proposed standard, as well as any unresolved objections and the developing
organization's rationale for its response, must be resubmitted to the "canvass
list." It is crucial that all interested groups be included on the list.
Two problems sometimes arise: the response level may be low and consumers and
others on the "canvass list" may have difficulty commenting on a standard,
because they did not participate in the initial drafting and may not understand
the reasons for or implications of particular provisions. Return
to Contents
On the whole, the benefits of standardization
far outweigh the difficulties and potential for abuse. Standards promote understanding
between buyer and seller and make possible mutually beneficial commercial transactions.
Product attributes cannot always be evaluated by individual purchasers by inspection
or even from prior experience. However, a product's conformance to accepted standards
readily provides an efficient method of conveying complex information on the product's
suitability. Architects use standards in a shorthand manner when drafting plans
for buildings; purchasing agents can also use standards as an easy way of communicating
their needs to potential suppliers. In a host of situations standards are or may
be used to replace large quantities of complex information. Standards underlie
mass production methods and processes. They promote more effective and organized
social interaction, such as the example of the standardized colors for traffic
lights and many other widely accepted conventions. Standards are essential in
efforts to improve product safety and to clean up the environment. Standardized
and interchangeable parts can reduce inventory requirements and facilitate product
repairs. They can also promote fair competition by facilitating the comparison
of prices of standardized commodities. In general, standards permit society
to make more effective use of its resources and allow more effective communication
among all parties to particular activities, transactions, or processes. Indeed,
standards are crucial to every form of scientific and industrial process. Without
standards, the quality of life would be significantly reduced. No system,
particularly one as complex and diverse as the U.S. voluntary standards system,
is without problems. In a recent case of great significance, the United States
Supreme Court on May 17, 1982, rendered its decision in favor of Hydrolevel, a
manufacturer of low-water fuel cutoff devices, in the case of American Society
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) v. Hydrolevel. It found ASME liable for conspiring
to restrain trade since two subcommittee officers, serving as volunteers but acting
in the name of ASME, issued a misinterpretation of a standard and produced an
adverse effect on the competitiveness of the plaintiff. Similarly, the Federal
Trade Commission held hearings on standards and certification and uncovered "substantiated
complaints of individual standards and certification actions that have, in fact,
unreasonably restrained trade or deceived or otherwise injured consumers."
14/ In part, problems result from the sometimes substantial costs of participation
in standards development, making it difficult (if not impossible) for small firms
and non-industry representatives to be active in the process. The standards themselves
may cause problems if highly technical in nature. It is frequently difficult,
if not impossible, to get qualified consumer representatives to participate actively.
This seriously complicates the attempts to achieve balanced representation by
all interests concerned. Other problems may occur when a standard undergoes
review and revision. Unless the original writers of the standard participate in
its revision, the reviewers may not be able to understand how the document was
prepared, what was eliminated from consideration, and the reasons or assumptions
underlying decisions and the resultant provisions. Problems can also occur in
the application of specific provisions if the intent behind them is unclear. Rationale
statements, which sometimes accompany a standard, are specifically designed
to define the purpose and scope of the standard, to explain the criteria used
in developing its requirements and to provide all other relevant information at
the disposal of the developers. However, the use of rationale statements is not
yet extensive. 15/ Return to Contents
"The
first time a craftsman claimed that his product met a commonly accepted standard,
the most basic form of certification came into being." 16/ Today product
certification schemes range from the simple to the complex. The hallmarking of
precious metals was an early form of certification. Many early attempts, most
unsuccessful, were also made to certify weights and measures to provide a uniform
basis for the exchange of goods. Now there are over 100 private organizations
and over 60 Federal programs in the United States which certify products ranging
from electrical cords to kitchen cabinets. In addition, many certification programs
are operated at the state and local level. Consumers see evidence of the extensiveness
of certification when they note the Underwriters' Laboratory (UL) certification
mark on many products ranging from coffee pots to fire extinguishers; the U. S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) mark on meats, poultry and other agricultural
products; and the International Wool Secretariat's Woolmark and Woolmarkblend
on wool or wood blend textile goods. These are only a few of the many certification
programs which are conducted in the United States. Product certification
is intended to confirm that a particular product conforms to one or more specified
standards, thus providing the user with explicit or implicit information about
the characteristics and/or performance of the product. Certification is a method
for increasing a buyer's confidence in a product and for furnishing product information. In
the United States, if a manufacturer or supplier attests to the fact that his
product meets one or more standards, the process is called self-certification.
This process is also known as a manufacturer's declaration in other parts
of the world. The manufacturer's capability, integrity, and reputation determine
the degree of confidence that can be placed in self-certification. Third-party
certification is the term applied to the process by which an organization,
independent of either the manufacturer or supplier, assesses the product's conformance
to one or more standards. A manufacturer's overall quality control program may
also be examined as part of the certification process. A quality control program
is a series of activities designed to assure that quality is being maintained
at all phases of production. There are hundreds of third-party certification programs
in the United States operated by Federal, State, and local governments and by
many private organizations. Third-party certification programs differ greatly
from one another, and the degree of confidence in the resultant certification
depends on the program's type and comprehensiveness. The methods used in
third-party certification programs can be classified as follows: o Type-testing/Initial
Inspection - This assures that the manufacturer's design specifications can produce
a product that conforms to a particular standard. Products from a production run
are not inspected or tested, and there is no information on whether products from
a production run also consistently meet the specification. o Audit-Testing
- In this procedure, test samples are selected at random from the marketplace.
Extensive testing is usually required to provide adequate assurance that products
meet the desired standard. o Surveillance of the Manufacturing Process -
Assessment of a manufacturer's production and control processes can, at relatively
low cost, provide assurance that the manufacturer's quality control procedures
are adequate. o Field Investigations - Alleged failures of products under
use conditions are investigated to determine the cause of failure and to suggest
appropriate corrective action. o Batch-testing - A sample of products is
selected from a production batch and tested for conformance to the standard. If
the sampling procedure and the sample size are adequate, batch-testing makes it
likely that all products in that batch conform to the standard. It does not, however,
ensure that a specific untested product in the batch will meet the standard nor
does it furnish information on the quality of products produced in earlier or
subsequent batches. Batch testing is used in many certification programs for building
products, such as those for energy conservation. o 100 Percent Testing -
Each individual product is tested to determine if it meets the designated standard.
If the testing procedures are adequate, the procedure provides the highest possible
level of assurance that the product conforms to a particular standard. It is also
usually the most expensive method and can be applied only where the test has no
adverse effect on the product. 17/ Many programs apply two or more of these
methods in their certification process. The choice of methods depends on the needs
of both the buyer and the seller and the nature of the product. The methods chosen
can greatly affect both the cost of the program and the level of confidence that
can be ascribed to it. ANSI and ISO have each developed criteria to evaluate certification
programs. ANSI has also developed a program to accredit certification schemes
which meet its criteria, but only two programs have been accredited to date. Return
to Contents
Laboratory accreditation is a process for evaluating
testing facilities and designating those laboratories judged competent to perform
specific tests using standard test methods, where available. The National Voluntary
Laboratory Accreditation Program (NVLAP) in the NIST, Department of Commerce,
and the American Association for Laboratory Accreditation (AALA) are the two largest
accreditation agencies in the United States. There are many other Federal, State
and local government programs, as well as many private sector laboratory accreditation
programs. Some of these include: the Department of Defense's (DOD) programs for
accrediting laboratories which test products which will later be sold to DOD;
the State of Massachusetts programs for accrediting concrete testing laboratories
and laboratories which test solid fuel burning appliances; and the National Kitchen
Cabinet Association's (NKCA) accreditation program for laboratories which test
kitchen cabinets as part of the NKCA's certification program. 18/ It should
be emphasized that laboratory accreditation assesses the capability of
a laboratory to conduct testing, generally using standard test methods. The accreditation
process should not be confused with certification nor with the validation of a
certification, which is "an action by a third party to assure that the producer
(or certifier) is adhering to the requirements of a given certification program."
19/ Laboratory accreditation neither reviews nor assesses products, nor does it
check the tests conducted on specific products or product batches. In addition,
laboratories may be accredited to conduct tests (such as EPA's accreditation program
for laboratories testing drinking water) in fields where no certification program
exists. Laboratory accreditation, however, can affect the quality of certification
programs by requiring evidence that a certifying laboratory has competent personnel,
adequate equipment, and sufficient knowledge of the testing procedures for which
accreditation is sought. Also, laboratory accreditation is assuming increased
importance in trade. As countries seek acceptance of their test data by trading
partners, they must assure that the data comes from competent laboratories. Laboratory
accreditation can help to provide that assurance. Return
to Contents
Standardization, product certification, and laboratory accreditation are
closely linked. In many developing countries, all three activities are conducted
by the same organization. Certification programs are communication tools designed
to reduce the cost of exchanging information between buyer and seller. The quality
of the information conveyed depends on both the competence of the testing laboratory
selected and the adequacy and appropriateness of the standards against which the
product is to be evaluated. Certification can result in widespread consumer deception
if performance characteristics or test methods contained in the standard are insufficient
to assure adequate product performance or if the testing laboratory is incompetent
or has biases which affect the reporting of test results. Considering the
number of standards in existence and the variety of fields covered by private
sector standards development and certification organizations, the United States
has one of the most developed and complex standardization and certification systems
in the world. Furthermore, the number of Federal, State, and local government
standardization and certification activities and the large volume of standards,
regulations, and procurement specifications that these agencies have developed,
result in an immense impact of standardization and related activities on almost
every aspect of life in the United States. Not only are considerable resources
invested in this country in such activities every year, but purchasers (consumers)
depend on standards and certification to ensure that products purchased are safe
and perform satisfactorily. Recognition of the impact of standards and certification
on trade, as evidenced by the Standards Code, is also increasing. Society depends
on standardization and related activities for its existence. Return
to Contents
Information
Available from The Office of Standards Services
National Institute of
Standards and Technology
100 Bureau Drive, MS 2100
Gaithersburg, MD 20899-2100 Return
to Contents
1/
USA Standards Institute, "What is ... a Standard? the USA Standards Institute?
a USA Standard?," USA Standards Institute, New York, New York, p. l. 2/
National Policy on Standards for the United States and a Recommended Implementation
Plan, National Standards Policy Advisory Committee, Washington, D.C.,December,
1978. p. 6. 3/ International Trade Administration, The Tokyo Round Agreements:
Technical Barriers to Trade - Volume 4, Dept. of Commerce, Washington, D.C., September
1981. 4/ American Standards Association, "Through History with Standards"
in Rowen Glie (ed.), Speaking of Standards, Cahner Books, Boston, MA, 1972, p.
38. 5/ Ibid., p. 42. 6/ Ibid., p. 44. 7/ Rexmond C. Cochrane,
Measures for Progress: A History of the National Bureau of Standards, National
Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C., pp. 82-86,
1974. 8/ American Standards Association, p. 60. 9/ Ibid., p. 68. 10/
Ibid., p. 50. 11/ International Organization for Standardization, draft
revision of ISO Guide 2, "General terms and their definitions concerning
standardization, certification and testing laboratory accreditation," July
1985. 12/ W. E. Andrus, Jr., Draft NBS Glossary of Terms for Product Standardization,
Product Certification and Laboratory Accreditation, U.S. National Bureau of Standards,
Dept. of Commerce, 1974. 13/ American Standards Association, p. 48. 14/
Bureau of Consumer Protection, Standards and Certification: Final Staff Report
- April 1983, Federal Trade Commission, Washington, D.C., April, 1983, p. 2. 15/
David A. Swankin, Rationale Statements for Voluntary Standards -- Issues, Techniques,
and Consequences, National Bureau of Standards, Dept. of Commerce, Gaithersburg,
MD, November, 1981. 16/ International Organization for Standardization,
Certification: Principles and Practice, International Organization for Standardization,
Geneva, Switzerland, 1980, p. 7. 17/ Douglas B. Thomas, NVLAP Glossary of
Terms for Laboratory Accreditation, Product Certification and Standardization,
U.S. National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 1980. 18/ Charles W.
Hyer, Principal Aspects of U.S. Laboratory Accreditation Programs, National Bureau
of Standards, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, October 1984. 19/ Ibid. 21. Return
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